Phytotherapeutical implications in pain perception - focusing on schizophrenia
Keywords:
schizophrenia;pain in schizophrenia, phytotherapy and pain, antinociceptive activity in ethnopharmacologyAbstract
Schizophrenia is an extremely complex psychiatric disease where perception of pain is altered, varying from abolition to lack of any kind of changes compared to normal controls and even hypersensitivity. In this way, the hypothesis of amending schizophrenia through pain therapy enhanced the importance of pain medication. But managing pain phenomenon in schizophrenia has large and unknown implications. Nevertheless, pharmacological interactions between the medications for these two entities are unknown and most likely would have a lot of side-effects and therefore ethnopharmacological methods became once again an interesting option. Traditional medicine wisdom was followed in the pursuit of finding connections between ancient knowledge and current scientific proven facts. To our best of knowledge, this is the first time when pain, plants and schizophrenia are discussed together. In this way, it seems that by replacing fully synthesized chemical products, the risk of side-effects decreases. Also, it appears that some plants besides treating pain may have curing effects on the psychotic activities in schizophrenia. Therefore, through this mini-review we emphasized on the advantages of the ethonopharmacological approaches in pain conditions in the context of schizophrenia, but also highlighted some cases of inappropriate usage of plants in traditional therapy.
References
. Hoff P. Eugen Bleuler’s Concept of Schizophrenia and Its Relevance to Present-Day Psychiatry Neuropsychobiology 2012;66:6–13.
. Linnman C, Coombs III G, Goff DC, Holt DJ. Lack of insula reactivity to aversive stimuli in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 2013;143:150–157.
.Fishbain DA. Pain insensitivity in psychosis. Ann Emerg Med 1982;11:630–2.
. Bickerstaff LK, Harris SC, Leggett RS, Cheah KC. Pain insensitivity in schizophrenic patients: a surgical dilemma. Arch Surg 1988;123:49–51.
. Rosenthal SH, Porter KA, Coffey B. Pain insensitivity in schizophrenia: case report and review of the literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1990;12:319–22.
. Retamero C, Paglia C. When patients do not hurt: silent acute abdomen in a patient with schizophrenia. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2012;34:2109–2111.
. Hill AF. Economic Botany, McGraw-Hill Book Company, INC. Tokyo; 1952:152.
. Eaton WW, Martins SS, Nestadt G, Bienvenu OJ, Clarke D, Alexandre P. The burden of mental disorders. Epidemiol Rev 2008;30:1-14.
. Gottesman II. Schizophrenia Genesis: The Origins of Madness. Henry Holt & Company Inc New York; 1991.
. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
. Hettema JM, Neale MC, Kendler KS. A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1568-1578.
. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS, Neale MC. Schizophrenia as a complex trait: evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:1187-1192.
. Lichtenstein P, Yip BH, Bjork C, Pawitan Y, Cannon TD, Sullivan PF, Hultman CM. Common genetic determinants of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Swedish families: a population-based study. Lancet 2009;373:234-239.
. Hallmayer J, Cleveland S, Torres A, Phillips J, Cohen B, Torigoe T, Miller J, Fedele A, Collins J, Smith K, et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68:1095-1102.
. Rees E, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ. Genetics of schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 2015;2:8–14.
. Veltman JA, Brunner HG. De novo mutations in human genetic disease. Nat Rev Genet 2012;13:565-575.
. Kong A, Frigge ML, Masson G, Besenbacher S, Sulem P, Magnusson G, Gudjonsson SA, Sigurdsson A, Jonasdottir A, Jonasdottir A et al. Rate of de novo mutations and the importance of father’s age to disease risk. Nature 2012;488:471-475.
. Merskey H, Albe-Fessard D, Bonica JJ et al. Pain terms: a list with definitions and notes on usage. Recommended by the IASP Subcommittee on Taxonomy. Pain 1979;6:249.
. Kraepelin E, Robertson GM. Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Livingstone, Edinburgh; 1919.
. Bonnot O, Anderson GM, Cohen D, Willer JC, Tordjman S. Are patients with schizophrenia insensitive to pain? A reconsideration of the question. Clin J Pain 2009;25:244–252.
. Potvin S, Stip E, Tempier A, Pampoulova T, Bentaleb LA, Lalonde P, Lipp O, Goffaux P, Marchand S. Pain perception in schizophrenia: no changes in diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC) but a lack of pain sensitization. J Psychiat Res 2008;42:1010-1016.
. Strassnig M, Brar JS, Ganguli R. Body mass index and quality of life in community-dwelling patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2003;62:73–76.
. Stubbs B, Mitchell AJ, De Hert M, Correll CU, Soundy A, Stroobants M, Vancampfort D. The prevalence and moderators of clinical pain in people with schizophrenia: A systematic review and large scale meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2014;160:1–8.
. Girard M, Plansont B, Bonnabau H, Malauzat D. Experimental pain hypersensitivity in schizophrenic patients. Clin J Pain 2011;27:790-795.
. Engels G, Francke AL, van Meijel B, Douma JG, de Kam H, Wesselink W, Houtjes W, Scherder EJ. Clinical Pain in Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review. J Pain 2014;15:457-467.
. Antioch I, Ciobica A, Paulet M, Bild V, Lefter R, Timofte D. Pain manifestations in schizophrenia - clinical and experimental aspects in human patients and animal models. Psychiatr Danub 2015;27:142-152.
. Leucht S, Burkard T, Henderson J, Maj M, Sartorius N. Physical illness and schizophrenia: a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007;116:317–333.
. Mitchell AJ, Malone D, Doebbeling CC. Quality of medical care for people with and without comorbid mental illness and substance misuse: systematic review of comparative studies. Br. J Psychiatry 2009;194:491–499.
. De Hert M, Correll CU, Bobes J, Cetkovich-Bakmas M, Cohen D, Asai I, Detraux J, Gautam S, Möller HJ, Ndetei DM et al. Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care. World Psychiatry 2011a;10:52–77.
. De Hert M, Cohen D, Bobes J, Cetkovich-Bakmas M, Leucht S, Ndetei DM, Newcomer JW, Uwakwe R, Asai I, Möller HJ et al. Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. II. Barriers to care, monitoring and treatment guidelines, and recommendations at the system and individual levels. World Psychiatry 2011b;10:138–151.
. Birgenheir DG, Ilgen MA, Bohnert ASB, Abraham KM, Bowersox NW, Austin K, Kilbourne AM. Pain conditions among veterans with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2013;35:480-484.
. Taıwe GS, Kuete V. Neurotoxicity and Neuroprotective Effects of African Medicinal Plants. Toxicological Survey of African Medicinal Plants. Edition: First Edition 2014, Publisher: Elsevier, Editors: Victor Kuete, 2014:423-444.
. Imam MZ, Moniruzzaman M. Antinociceptive effect of ethanol extract of leaves of Lanneacoromandelica. J Ethnopharmacol 2014;154:109–115.
. Zheng XL, Xing FW. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants around Mt. Yinggeling, Hainan Island, China. J Ethnopharmacol 2009;124:197–210.
.Franco FM, Narasimhan D. Plant names and uses as indicators of knowledge patterns. IJTK 2009;8:645–648.
. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. CSIR, New Delhi (reprinted 1992); 1956.
. Yusuf M, Begum J, Hoque MN, Chowdhury JU. Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh, second ed. Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Laboratories Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh; 2009:4220.
. Kadir MF, Sayeed MSB, Mia MMK. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Bangladesh for gastrointestinal disorders. J Ethnopharmacol 2013;147:148–156.
. Singh S, Singh GB. Anti-inflammatory activity of Lannea coromandelica bark extract in rats. Phytother Res 1994;8:311–313.
. Tamura MN. Biosystematic studies on the genus polygonatum (liliaceae) 111. Morphology of stamen filaments and karyology of eleven Eurasian species. Bot Jahr Sys 1993;115:1–26.
. Monika S, Jakub S, Kornelia P, Czeslaw H, Roman Z. Comparison of three Polygonatum species from Poland based on DNA markers. Ann Bot Fenn 2006;43:378–388.
. Khan M, Kumar S, Hamal IA. Medicinal plants of Sewa River Catchment area in the Northwest Himalaya and its implication for conservation. Ethno- botanical Leaflets 2009;13:1113–1139.
. Amrit PS. Ashtavarga-rare medicinal plants. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 2006;10:104–108.
. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Ahmed Z, Singh SB. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh, used against kidney and urinary disorders. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;118:331–339.
. Uddin G, Waliullah RA, Rauf A, Siddiqui BS, Rehman TU, Ali M, Azam S, Qaisar M. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of cornus macrophylla wall. exRoxb. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 2011a;9:516–519.
. Uddin G, Rauf A, Siddiqui BS, Shah SQ. Preliminary comparative phyto-chemical screening of Diospyros lotus Stewart. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 2011b;10:78–81.
. Rashed K, Luo ZX, Zheng MY. Anti-HIV-1 activity of phenolic compounds isolated from Diospyros lotus fruits. Phytopharmacology 2012;3:199–207.
. Uddin G, Rauf A, Siddiqui BS, Muhammad N, Khan A, Shah SU. Anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory and sedative activities of the extracts and chemical constituents of Diospyros lotus L. Phytomedicine 2014;21: 954–959.
. Ghelardini C, Galeotti N, Lelli C, Bartolini A. M1 receptor activation is a requirement for arecoline analgesia. Il Farmaco 2001;56:383–385.
. Bhandare AM, Kshirsagar AD, Vyawahare NS, Hadambar AA, Thorve VS. Potential analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of hydroalcoholic extract of Areca catechu L. Nut. Food Chem Toxicol 2010;48:3412–3417.
. Xie YW, Xuc HX, Dongc H, Fiscus RR, Paul PH. Role of nitric oxide in the vasorelaxant and hypotensive effects of extracts and purified tannins from Geum japonicum. J Ethnopharmacol 2007;109:128–133.
. Mukherjee PK, Maiti K, Mukherjee K, Houghton PJ. Leads from Indian medicinal plants with hypoglycemic potentials. J Ethnopharmacol 2006;106:1–28.
. Azeez S, Amudhan S, Adiga S, Rao N, Rao N, Udupa LA. Wound healing profile of Areca catechu extracts on different wound models in wistar rats. Kuwait Med J 2007;39:48–52.
. Vermani K, Garg S. Herbal medicines for sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS. J Ethnopharmacol 2002;80:49–66.
. Dar A, Khatoon S. Behavioral and biochemical studies of dichloromethane fraction from Areca catechu nut. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000;65:1-6.
. Norton SA. Betel: consumption and consequences. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;37:81–88.
. The Wealth of India. Raw Material, vol. 1-A, revised ed. Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, 1985; pp. 390–412.
. Chopade AR, Sayyad FJ. Antinociceptive effect of Phyllanthusfraternus extract in complete Freund’s adjuvant induced chronic pain in mice. Biomedicine & Aging Pathology 2013;3:235–240.
. Kalegari M, Cerutti ML, Macedo-Júnior SJ, Bobinski F, Miguel MD, Eparvier V, Santos AR, Stien D, Miguel OG. Chemical composition and antinociceptive effect of aqueous extract from Rourea induta Planch. Leaves in acute and chronic pain models. J Ethnopharmacol 2014a;153:801–809.
. Rauf A, Uddin G, Siddiqui BS, Khan A, Khan H, Arfan M, Muhammad N, Wadood A. In-vivo antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of pistagremic acid isolated from Pistacia integerrima. Phytomedicine 2014;21:1509–1515.
. Adzu B, Amizan MB, Okhale SE. Evaluation of antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of standardised rootbark extract of Xeromphisnilotica. J Ethnopharmacol 2014;158:271–275.
. Imam MZ, Nahar N, Akter S, Rana MS. Antinociceptive activity of methanol extract of flowers of Impatiens balsamina. J Ethnopharmacol 2012;142:804–810.
. Reynoso MA, Vera N, Aristimuno ME, Daud A, Riera AS. Antinociceptive activity of fruits extracts and ‘‘arrope’’of Geoffroea decorticans (chan˜ar). J Ethnopharmacol 2013;145:355–362.
. Rabelo AS, Oliveira ID, Guimaraes AG, Quintans JS, Prata AP, Gelain DP, Venceslau EM, Santos JP, Quintans LJ J et al. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of aqueous extract from Remirea maritima (Cyperaceae). J Ethnopharmacol 2013;145:11–17.
. Botha CJ, Schultz R, Van der Lugt A, Retief EJJ, Labuschagne L. Neurotoxicity in calves induced by the plant, Nierembergia hippomanica Miers var. violacea Millan in South Africa. Onderstepoort J Vet 1999;66:237-244.
. Zhang ZG. Therapeutic effects of herbal extracts and constituents in animal models of psychiatric disorders. Life Sci 2004;75:1659-1699.
. Deiana S. Medical use of cannabis. Cannabidiol: a new light for schizophrenia? Drug Test Anal 2013;5:46-51.
. Costa B, Trovato AE, Comelli F, Giagnoni G, Colleoni M. The non-psychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an orally effective therapeutic agent in rat chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharmacol 2007;556:75–83.
. Zuardi AW, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, Bhattacharyya S, Atakan Z, Martin-Santos R, McGuire PK, Guimarães FS. A critical review of the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol: 30 years of a translational investigation. Curr Pharm Des 2012;18:5131-5140.
. McDonough P, McKenna JP, McCreary C, Downer EJ. Neuropathic orofacial pain: Cannabinoids as a therapeutic avenue. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol 2014;55:72–78.
. Johnson JR, Lossignol D, Burnell-Nugent M, Fallon MT. An open-label extension study to investigate the long-term safety and tolerability of THC/CBD oromucosal spray and oromucosal THC spray in patients with terminal cancer-related pain refractory to strong opioid analgesics. J Pain Symptom Manage 2013;46:207–18.
. Blake DR, Robson P, Ho M, Jubb RW, McCabe CS. Preliminary assessment of the efficacy, tolerability and safety of a cannabis-based medicine (Sativex) in the treatment of pain cause by rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006;45:50-2.
. Notcutt W, Langford R, Davies P, Ratcliffe S, Potts RA. A controlled, parallel-group, randomized withdrawal study of subjects with symptoms of spasticitydue to multiple sclerosis who are receiving long-term Sativex(R) (nabiximols). Mult Scler 2012;18:219–228.
. Cook S. Home Grown: Marijuana and the Origins of Mexico’s War on Drugs by Isaac Campos (review). Southwestern Historical Quarterly 2013;117:103-104.
. Gupta S, Masand PS, Kaplan D, Bhandary A, Hendricks S. The relationship between schizophrenia and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Schizophr Res 1997;23:265–268.
. De Filippis D, Esposito G, Cirillo C, Cipriano M, De Winter BY, Scuderi C, Sarnelli G, Cuomo R, Steardo L, De Man JG et al. Cannabidiol reduces intestinal inflammation through the control of neuroimmune axis. PloSOne 2011;6:e28159.
. Borrelli F, Fasolino I, Romano B, Capasso R, Maiello F, Coppola D, Orlando P, Battista G, Pagano E, Di Marzo V et al. Beneficial effect of the non-psychotropic plant cannabinoid cannabigerol on experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2013;85:1306–1316.
. Mozaffari S, Esmaily H, Rahimi R, Baeeri M, Sanei Y, Asadi-Shahmirzadi A, Salehi-Surmaghi M-H, Abdollahi M. Effects of Hypericum perforatum extract on rat irritable bowel syndrome. Pharmacogn Mag 2011;7:213-23.
. Frank B, Serpell MG, Hughes J, Matthews JN, Kapur D. Comparison of analgesic effects and patient tolerability of nabilone and dihydrocodeine for chronic neuropathic pain: randomised, crossover, double blind study. BMJ 2008;336:199–201.
. Cooper ZD, Comer SD, Haney M. Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013;38:1984–1992.
. Issa MA, Narang S, Jamison RN, Michna E, Edwards RR, Penetar DM et al. The subjective psychoactive effects of oral dronabinol studied in a randomized, controlled crossover clinical trial for pain. Clin J Pain 2014;30:472–8.
. Rog DJ, Nurmikko TJ, Young CA. Oromucosal delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol/cannabidiol for neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis: an uncontrolled, open-label, 2-year extension trial. Clin Ther 2007;29:2068–79.
. Mortensen PB, Juel K. Mortality and causes of death in schizophrenic patients in Denmark. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;81:372-377.
. Brown S, Inskip H, Barraclough B. Causes of the excess mortality of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:212-217.
. Saha S, Chant D, McGrath J. A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:1123-31.
. Schubart CD, Sommer IEC, Fusar-Poli P, de Witte L, Kahn RS, Boks MPM. Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for psychosis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2014;24:51–64.
. Casadio P, Fernandes C, Murray RB, Di Forti M. Cannabis use in young people: The risk for schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011;35:1779–1787.
. Crippa JA, Zuardi AW, Martin-Santos R, Martín-Santos R, Bhattacharyya S, Atakan Z, McGuire P, Fusar-Poli P. Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the evidence. Hum Psychopharmacol 2009;24:515-2.
. Dalton WS, Martz R, Lemberger L, Rodda BE, Forney RB. Influence of cannabidiol on delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1976;19:300–309.
. Bhattacharyya S, Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Martin-Santos R, Nosarti C, O'Carroll C et al. Modulation of mediotemporal and ventrostriatal function in humans by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a neural basis for the effects of Cannabis sativa on learning and psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:442–451.
. Leweke FM, Piomelli D, Pahlisch F, Muhl D, Gerth CW, Hoyer C, Klosterkötter J, Hellmich M, Koethe D. Cannabidiol enhances anandamide signaling and alleviates psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Transl Psychiatry 2012;2: 94.
. Seidel S, Aigner M, Ossege M, Pernicka E, Wildner B, Sycha T. Antipsychotics for acute and chronic pain inadults. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010; 39:768-778.
. Zhang Y, Wang C, Wang L, Parks GS, Zhang X, Guo Z, Ke Y, Li KW, Kim MK, Vo et al. A Novel Analgesic Isolated from a Traditional Chinese Medicine. Curr Biol 2014;24:117–123.
. Peckys D, Hurd YL. Prodynorphin and kappa opioid receptor mRNA expression in the cingulate and prefrontal cortices of subjects diagnosed with schizophrenia or affective disorders. Brain Res Bull 2001;55:619-624.
. Saki K, Bahmani M, Rafieian-Kopaei M, Hassanzadazar H, Dehghan K, Bahmani F, Asadzadeh J. The most common native medicinal plants used for psychiatric and neurological disorders in Urmia city, northwest of Iran. Asian Pac J Trop Dis 2014;4:895-901.
. Bushlin I, Rozenfeld R, Devi LA. Cannabinoid-opioid interactions during neuropathic pain and analgesia. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2010;10:80-86.
. Lozano I. The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics 2001;1:63-70.
. Henkes H, Franz M, Kendall O, Monroe J, Legaspi A, LeDoux J, Haese C, Williams D, McCall S, Johnson AD et al. Evaluation of the anxiolytic properties of tetrahydropalmatine, a Corydalis yanhusuo compound, in the male Sprague-Dawley rat. AANA J 2011;79:75-80.
. Chen HY, Lin YH, Su IH, Chen YC, Yang SH, Chen JL. Investigation on Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhea: implication from a nationwide prescription database in Taiwan. Complement Ther Med 2014;22:116-25.
. Lei Y, Tan J, Wink M, Ma Y, Li N, Su G. An isoquinoline alkaloid from the Chinese herbal plant Corydalis yanhusuo W.T. Wang inhibits P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associate protein 1. Food Chem 2013;136:1117-1121.
. Wen C, Wu L, Ling H, Li L. Salutary effects of Corydalis yanhusuo extract on cardiac hypertrophy due to pressure overload in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 2007;59:1159-1165.
. Vila J, Balderrama L, Bravo JL, Almanza G, Codina C, Bastida J, Connolly J. Prenyliso flavanones from Geoffroea decorticans. Phytochemistry 1998;49:2525–2528.
. Quiroga E, Sampietro D, Sgariglia M, Sobero´ J, Vattuone M. Antimycotic activity of 5’-prenyliso flavanones of the plant Geoffroea decorticans against Aspergillus species. Int J Food Microbiol 2009;132:42–46.
. Becker, R. Nutritional quality of the fruit from the chañar tree (Geoffroea decorticans). Ecology of Food and Nutrition 1983;13(2), 91-97.
. Amorin JL. Guia taxonómica con plantas de interés farmacéutico. Colegio Oficial de Farmacéuticos y Bioquímicos de Capital Federal, Argentina; 1988: 19.
. Ishiguro K, Fukumoto H, Murashima T, Kuriyama M, Semma M, Isoi K. Antianaphylactic effects of the ethanol extract from the petals of Impatiens balsamina L. in mice. Phytotherapy Research 1992;6;112–113.
. Oku H, Ishiguro K. Antipruritic and antidermatitic effect of extract and compounds of Impatiens balsamina L. in a topic dermatitis model NC mice. Phytother Res 2001;15:506–510.
. Sakunphueak A, Panichayupakaranant P. Comparison of antimicrobial activities of naphthoquinones from Impatiens balsamina. Nat Prod Res 2011;26:1119-24.
. Thevissen K, Francois IE, Sijtsma L, van Amerongen A, Schaaper WM, Meloen R, Posthuma-Trumpie T, Broekaert WF, Cammue BP. Antifungal activity of synthetic peptides derived from Impatiens balsamina antimicrobial peptides Ib-AMP1 and Ib-AMP4. Peptides 2005;26:1113–1119.
. Kang SC, Moon Y. Isolation and antimicrobial activity of anaphthoquinone from Impatiens balsamina. Saengyak Hakhoe Chi 1992;23:240–247.
. Jiang Su. Dictionary of Chinese Crude Drugs. Shang Hai Scientific Technological Publishers, Shanghai, PR China; 2003.
. Yang X, Summerhurst DK, Koval SF, Ficker C, Smith FL, Bernards MA. Isolation of anantimicrobial compound from Impatiens balsamina L. using bioassay-guided fractionation. Phytother Res 2001;15:676–689.
. Ghani A. Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh: Chemical Constituents and Uses, Second ed. The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dhaka; 2003.
. Alam B, Hossain S, Habib R, Rea J, Islam A. Antioxidant and analgesic activities of Lannea coromandelica Linn. Bark extract. Int J Pharmacol 2012;8:224–233.
. Singh S, Singh GB. Hypotensiveactivityof Lannea coromandelica bark extract. Phytother Res 1996;10:429–430.
. Mannan A, Das H, Rahman M, Jesmin J, Siddika A, Rahman M, Rahman S, Chowdhury MH, Rahmatullah M. Antihyperglycemic activity evaluation of Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link leaf and stem and Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.bark extract in mice. Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences 2010;4:385–388.
. Sathish R, Ahmed MH, Natarajan K, Lalitha KG. Evaluation of wound healing and antimicrobial activity of Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr Journal of Pharmacy Research 2010;3:1225–1228.
. Panda SK, Patra N, Sahoo G, Bastia AK, Dutta SK. Anti-diarrheal activities of medicinal plants of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India. Int J Med Arom Plants 2012;2:123–134.
. Gandhidasan R, Thamaraichelvan A, Baburaj S. Anti-inflammatory action of Lannea coromandelica by HRBC membrane stabilization. Fitoterapia 1991;62:81–83.
. Upadhye AS, Rajopadly AA. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical evaluation of leaf galls of Kakashringi used in Indian system of medicine. J Sci Ind Res 2010;69:700–704.
. Uddin G, Rauf A, Abdulaziz Al-Othman M, Collina S, Arfan M, Ali G, Khan I. Pistagremic acid, a glucosidase inhibitor from Pistacia integerrima. Fitoterapia 2012b;83:1648–1652.
. Rauf A, Uddin G, Arfan M, Muhammad N. Chemical composition and biological screening of essential oils from Pistacia integerrima. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol 2013;7:1220–1224.
. Kumari KK, Setty OH. Protective effect of Phyllanthus fraternus against mitochondrial dysfunction induced by co-administration of cisplatin and cyclophosphamide. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2012;44:179–88.
. Ramakrishna V, Gopi S, Setty OH. Protective effect of Phyllanthus fraternus against bromobenzene-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in rat kidney. Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines 2012;10:328-333.
. Sen B, Dubey SD, Tripathi K. Pharmacognostical study of Tamalaki (Phyllanthusfraternus Webster), a herb used in Tamaka-svasa. AYU 2011;32:398–401.
. Sharma SK, Sheela MA. Pharmacognostic evaluation of leaves of certain Phyl-lanthus species used as a botanical source of Bhumyamalaki in Ayurveda. AYU 2011;32:250–253.
. Santos AR, De Campos RO, Miguel OG, Filho VC, Siani AC, Yunes RA, Calixto J. Antinociceptive properties of extracts of new species of plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae). J Ethnopharmacol 2000;72:229–238.
. Allan RD, Correl RL, Wells RJ. Two new phenolic ketones from Remirea maritima. Tetrahedron Letters 1969;53:4673–4674.
. Siani AC, Silva AMP, Nakamura MJ, Carvalho MV, Henriques MGMO, Ramos MFS, Kaiser CR. Chemical composition and anti-inflammatory activity of the hydrodistillate from Mariscus pedunculatus. J Braz Chem Soc 2001;3:354–359.
. Allan RD, Wells RJ, MacLeod IK. Flavanone quinines from Cyperus species. Tetrahedron Letters 1973;1:7–8.
. Kalegari M, Miguel MD, Dias JFG, Lacava Lordello AL, Peitz de Lima C, Miyazaki CMS, Zanin SMW, Verdam MCS, Miguel OG. Phytochemical constituents and preliminary toxicity evaluation of leaves from Rourea induta Planch. (Connaraceae). Braz. J Pharm Sci 2011;47:635–642.
. Kalegari M, Miguel, MD, Philippsen AF, Dias JFG, Warumby Zanin SM, Peitz de Lima C, Miguel OG et al. Antibacterial, allelopathicand antioxidant activity of extracts and compounds from Rourea induta Planch. (Connaraceae). Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 2012;2:61–66.
. Kalegari M, Gemin CAB, Araújo-Silva G, Brito NJ, López JA, Tozetto SO, Almeida MG, Miguel MD, Stien D, Miguel OG. Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of Rourea induta Planch. (Connaraceae) against CCl4-induced liver injury in female rats. Nutrition 2014b;20:713-718.
. Fonseca LCM, Proença CEB. Connaraceae: Florado Distrito Federal, vol.2. Embrapa/Ministério da Agriculturaedo Abastecimento, Brasília; 2002:39–51.
. Adzu B, Amizan MB, Njan AA, Ezeowumelu JOC, Akumka DD. Anticonvulsant effect of the aqueous extract of Xeromphis nilotica in mice. Int J Biol Chem Sci 2008;2:359–362.
. Danjuma NM, Zezi AU, Yaro AH, Musa AM, Ahmed A, Sanni HA, Maje IM. Residual aqueous fraction of stem bark extract of Xeromphis nilotica and behavioural effects in mice. International Journal of Applied Research in Natural Products 2009;2:5–12.
. Sulaiman SM, Basher AK, Mohamed AM. Effect of certain Sudanese plant extracts on egg-hatching miracidia and cercaria of Schistoso mamansoni. Int J Crud Drug Res 1988;26:17–21.
. El Kheir YM, Salih MH. Investigation of certain plant used in Sudanese folk medicine. Fitoterapia 1980;51:143–147.
. Hedberg I, Hedberg O, Madati PJ, Mshigeni KE, Samuelsson G. Inventory of plant used in traditional medicine in Tanzania part III. Plants of the families Papilionaceae-Vitaceae. J Ethnopharmacol 1983;9:237–260.
. Chhabra SC, Mahunnah RLA, Mshiu EN. Plant used in traditional medicine in Eastern Tanzania: (Angiosperms, Passifloraceae to Sapindaceae). J Ethnopharmacol 1987;33:143–157.
