Fave et al.

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Potential antioxidant and hypoglycaemic

effect of the ﬂower extract of Bougainvillea

spectabilis Willd. (Nyctaginaceae)

Tata Yohanna Fave

, Hafsat Ali Sa’ab

, Abdulkadir Bukar Bababe

, Muhammad Mustapha Hassan

Wazis Chama Haruna

and Cletus Anes Ukwubile

Abstract

The study evaluated the antioxidant and hypoglycaemic potentials of the ethanol ﬂower extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis. Flower

extract of B. spectabilis were obtained by cold maceration method. The preliminary phytochemical screening and hypoglycaemic

effect were carried out using standard methods. Antioxidant screening was carried out using DPPH antioxidant assay test. Five

rats were used for each group; normal control, standard control, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. doses of the crude ethanol ﬂower

extract of B. spectabilis to test hypoglycaemic effect in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Blood glucose levels were measured at dif-

ferent time intervals. The preliminary phytochemical Screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, strerols, terpenoids,

ﬂavonoids and carbohydrates. The crude ethanol fraction demonstrated least antioxidant activity while the chloroform fraction

showed the highest antioxidant activity followed by hexane fraction. The ethanol ﬂower extract showed a signiﬁcant dose depen-

dent hypoglyceamic effect after 24 hours of administration. Of the doses tested, highest hypoglycaemic effect was observed by

the ethanol ﬂower extract of the dose 400 mg/kg at 24 hours. The ﬁndings revealed that non-polar fractions have more antioxi-

dant activity than the polar fractions while the ethanol ﬂower extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis possess a delayed hypoglycaemic

effect.

Keywords: Alloxan; antioxidant; Bougainvillea spectabilis; DPPH; hyperglycaemia

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterised by

hyperglycaemia which occur due to inherited and/or acquired

deﬁciency in insulin production or utilization by the beta cells

of the pancreas [1]. Hyperglycaemia often result to the classic

symptoms such as excessive; urination (polyuria), thirst (poly-

dipsia), eating (polyphagia) as well as blurred vision, weight

loss, neuropathy and retinopathy. The consequences of uncon-

trolled diabetes often ensue to diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic aci-

Correspondence:

Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy,

University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria

Full list of author information is available at the end of the article.

dosis, hyper-osmolar non-ketotic with subsequent progressive

metabolic complications and organ damage particularly in the

blood vessels and nerves [2] [3]. Decrease of antioxidant activity

in diabetes is usually accompanied by increased production of

free radicals or oxidative stress due hyperglycaemia [4] [5]. Hy-

perhylcaemia produces super-oxide anions and hydroxyl radical

which results in protein glycation and peroxidation of membrane

lipids which adversely damages the biomolecules. Excessive

production of oxidants (Reactive oxygen or nitrogen species) in

the body escalate the harmful effect of the free radicals which are

often associated with the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases

such as diabetes [6]. Antioxidants prevent the free radical me-

diated damages by scavenging them and hereby protecting from

oxidative stress [4]. Many medicinal plants possess strong an-

International Journal of Phytomedicine

2021;13(1):009-015

DOI:10.5138/09750185.2460

Received: 29 Nov 2020, Accepted:14 Mar 2021

tioxidant and free radical scavenging abilities that are essential

in the prevention and treatment of some of the chronic diseases

(cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity and neurode-

generative diseases) caused by oxidative stress [7] .

According to the reports of International Diabetes Federation

(IDF) and the World Health Organization (WHO), the estimated

global prevalence of diabetes for adult between the ages of 20

and 79 in year 2015 was 415 million with about 1.5 million an-

nual deaths directly attributed to diabetes [8] [9] and by the year

2030, 438 million people are expected to have diabetes glob-

ally [10]. According to reports of WHO, people living with di-

abetes in Africa increased from 4 million to 25 million between

1980 and 2014. In Nigeria, there were about 1,702,900 cases of

diabetes in 2015 with prevalence rate estimated at 4.7% [8] [11].

The increased prevalence of the disease could be associated with

population growth, ageing, unhealthy diets, obesity and seden-

tary lifestyles [12] .

The mainstay approach to treatment of diabetes mellitus is

pharmacological (oral hypoglycaemic drugs and insulin) and

non-pharmacological (dietary modiﬁcation and physical activ-

ity). The conventional oral hypoglycaemic agents and insulin

are associated with some setbacks in many developing coun-

tries due to unavailability, inaccessibility, unaffordability and

low quality of these drugs. Secondary failure rates and adverse

effects like hypoglycaemia of insulin, haematological disorders

and rise in hepatic enzyme level are other challenges with the

use of these drugs [13]. Therefore, many have resort to the use of

plant species identiﬁed with hypoglycaemic activity in the form

of crude extracts, decoction, infusion or tincture to treat this dis-

ease which is becoming wide and common practice in many de-

veloping countries where their primary health care needs depend

largely on traditional medicines [14] [15]. However, searching

for new antidiabetic drugs from natural products still continues

because they contain substances which demonstrate alternative

and safe effects on diabetes mellitus [16], which can be used

in management of diabetes alone or in combination with ortho-

dox/conventional antidiabetic drugs.

B. spectabilis Wild used in this study is commonly known

as bougainvillea, great bougainvillea (family: Nyctaginaceae

Genus: bougainvillea). B. spectabilis was reported to possess

various biological activities which include; hypoglycaemic,

cholesterol lowering effect, antibacterial, nematocidal, an-

tifeedant and insecticidal, antiviral and anti-inﬂammatory ac-

tivities were reported of B. spectabilis [17].

Materials and methods

Drugs and chemicals

Alloxan monohydrate (Kem Light Laboratories PVT. LTD),

ethanol (JHD), insulin (M.J. Biopharm Private Limited)

Collection and identiﬁcation of plant materials

The ﬂowers of B. spectabilis were freshly collected in the morn-

ing in November 2018 from Faculty of Science, University of

Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State. The plant material was

identiﬁed by a taxonomist, Prof. S.S. Sanusi in the Department

of Biological Science University of Maiduguri Borno State and

was deposited with an herbarium number UM/FPH/14a/001/001

for future studies and reference.

Preparation and extraction of the plant material

The ﬂowers of B. spectabilis collected were shed-dried at room

temperature for seven days and powdered using wooden pestle

and mortar. The weight of Powdered material used for extraction

was 900 g. the obtained and stored in an air tight glass container

at room temperature. The Powdered plant material was extracted

with 95% ethanol (JHD) using cold maceration method of ex-

traction. The powdered plant material (0.9 kg) was soaked in ﬁve

(5) litres of 95% ethanol (JHD) in a bottle and kept for 72hours

with occasional agitation. After 72 hours, the mixture was ﬁl-

tered through a glass funnel using Whatman’s ﬁlter paper. The

ﬁltrate obtained was concentrated with a reduced pressure in a

rotary evaporator and allowed to dry. The percentage yield for

the extract was then calculated using the formula below:

Percentage yield (%) =

weight of extract

weight of powdered plant material

x 100

The crude ethanol extract of B. spectabilis was stored in an

air tight container for the study.

Stock solutions of the reference drug (Biosulin) and the ex-

tract were prepared in this study by dissolving a known quantity

in speciﬁed volume of distilled water for administrations.

Partitioning

Extraction using solvent partitioning involves primarily the use

of two immiscible solvents in a separating funnel. Twenty grams

(30g) the ethanol extract was dissolved 300 mLof distilled wa-

ter. It was then transferred to the separation funnel; the resulting

solution is extracted with an equal volume of n-hexane usually

three times, to give a fraction containing nonpolar compounds.

The solution (suspension) was further partitioned with chloro-

form, and n-butanol successively to give fractions containing

mid-polar and polar compounds respectively. The fractions from

this process were then concentrated using a rotary evaporator

and allowed to try.

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

010

Phytochemical Screening

The ethanol ﬂower extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis was

used for phytochemical screening using the standard methods

of [18] [19].

Experimental animals

Healthy albino rats of both sexes weighing (150-280g) were used

in this study. The rats were obtained from the animal house of the

Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Phar-

macy, University of Maiduguri, Borno State. The animals were

housed in clean cages embedded with saw dust and were allowed

to get acclimatized to the laboratory environment for seven (7)

days under controlled environmental condition of room temper-

ature, and had free access to food and water ad libitum before

they were used for the study.

Acute Toxicity

The acute toxicity (LD

) of the ethanol ﬂower extract of B.

spectabilis was determined using modiﬁed Lorke’s method [20],

which was adopted in this study to evaluate the acute toxicity

in Wistar strain albino rats under standard conditions as the an-

imals were allowed free access to food and water. The animals

(n=2 per dose) were fasted for four (4) hours prior to the experi-

ment oral administration of the extract. In phase I, Animals were

orally administered the extract at the doses of 10, 100 and 1000

mg/Kg and observed for mortality and signs of toxicity within

the ﬁrst 24 hours. When death was not record in phase II af-

ter 24 hours, furthermore, another group of animals were given

1600, 2900 and 5000 mg/kg of the extract in the phase II.

Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity

Scavenging activity of di- phenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radi-

cals of the plant extracts were measured according to the method

described by Krishna [21]. Assays was performed in 3 mL re-

action mixtures containing 2.0 mL of 0.1 mM DPPH-methanol

solution, 0.9 mL of 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4), and 0.1

mL of deionized H

O (as control) or test plant extracts. After 30

minutes of incubation at room temperature, absorbance of the

reaction mixtures at 517 nm was taken. The inhibitory effect of

DPPH was calculated according to the formula below:

Inhibition (%) =

(Abs of control ˘ Abs of sample)

Abs of control

x 100

represents the level where 50% of the radicals would be

scavenged by test samples.

Induction of experimental diabetes and Anti-diabetic effects

of B. spectabilis

Thirty rats weighing between (150 and 289 g) were grouped into

six groups each containing ﬁve rats. The animals were fasted

overnight and their baseline blood glucose level was measured

prior to the induction of diabetes. Group I received normal saline

which was used as normal control (NC) while groups II-VI re-

ceived single dose of intraperitoneal injection of alloxan mono-

hydrate (Kem Light Laboratories PVT. LTD) dissolved in dis-

tilled water at the dose of 150mg/kg to induce experimental dia-

betes in the animals. The blood glucose of the animals was mea-

sured at the interval of 24 hours. After 72 hours of alloxan ad-

ministration, the glucose levels of the rats were greater than 200

mg/dl. Those with blood glucose level greater than 200mg/kg

were considered diabetic and used for this study.

After induction of diabetes, the animals in each group were

treated. Group I which served as the normal control group was

orally administered 2 mL/kg of normal saline, while the dia-

betic rats in group II used as diabetic control received no treat-

ment. Group III which served as the positive control, received

0.75 IU/kg of soluble insulin (M.J. Biopharm Private Limited)

through intraperitoneal route. The diabetic rats in Groups IV, V

and VI were treated with 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg of ethanol

crude ﬂower extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis respectively.

The blood glucose of all the experimental animals were period-

ically measured after 1, 3, 6, 9, 24 and 48 hours using Accu-

check active glucometer Roche Diabetes Care GmbH 68305

Mannheim, Germany. The code on the glucometer was set to

correspond with that on the glucometer strips. This is to avoid

errors and to ensure accuracy of the results. The tail of each rat

was pricked with lancet and a drop of blood was collected on

the strip then inserted into the glucometer and readings on the

screen of the glucometer were recorded in mg/dl.

Statistical Analysis

Data obtained from this study were analysed using one-way

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine the relationship

between the variables means using Statistical Package for So-

cial Sciences (SPSS) version 16 and the results were expressed

as mean and standard error of the mean (Mean±SEM). The p-

Value<0.05 is considered signiﬁcant.

Results

Percentage yield and phytochemical constituents of

ethanol crude ﬂower extract of B. Spectabilis

The percentage yield of the ethanol crude ﬂower extract of B.

Spectabilis was 8.53% obtained from 900g of powdered mate-

rial with a characteristics colour of dark brown and a smooth

texture. The extract showed the presence of cardiac glycosides,

saponins, anthraquinones, triterpenes, ﬂavonoids, alkaloids, and

carbohydrates, however tannin was not present (Tables 1 and 2).

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

011

Acute Toxicity Study

The oral acute toxicity study of the crude ethanol ﬂower extract

of B.spectabilis was determined using Lorke’s method and there

were no death of the animals recorded in both phases of the study

at the different doses used. Thus, the LD

of the crude extract

was found to be greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight (Table 3).

Antioxidant Activities of the Various Fractions of the

Flower Extract B. Spectabilis

The fractions of the ﬂower extract of B. Spectabilis exhibited

antioxidant activity in a concentration dependant manner with

the highest dose at 100 µg/mL and the least at 6.25 µg/mL. The

chloroform fraction exhibited the most scavenging activity with

an IC

of 43.8 µg/mL followed by the n-hexane fraction with an

of 43.8 µg/mL. The n-butanol fraction exhibited the least

scavenging activity (IC

of 159.3 µg/mL). These scavenging

activities are however not comparable to standard drug ascorbic

acid (IC

of 41 µg/mL) (Table 4).

Effect of ethanol crude ﬂower extract of B.

Spectabilis on blood glucose level in Alloxan i

nduced diabetic rats

The result of this study showed that alloxan was able to induce

hyperglycaemia after 72 hours of intraperitoneal administration

in the rats besides the normal control (NC) group that received

normal saline. A progressive increase in the blood glucose level

of the extract treated groups was observed in all the doses at 1,

3 and 6 hours after the oral administration of the crude extract

except the dose of 400 mg/kg at 6 hours compared to the normal

control. The rise in blood glucose level of the extract treated rats

was highly signiﬁcant after treatment compared to the insulin

group.

A remarkable and signiﬁcant reduction in the blood glucose

levels were observed at all doses of the ethanol crude extract af-

ter 24 hours of oral administration. The decrease in the blood

glucose level was not signiﬁcant (p>0.05) in comparison with

standard insulin (positive control). The reduction in the blood

glucose levels of the extract treated rats at 24 hours of admin-

istration were dose dependent and signiﬁcantly lower as com-

pared to the diabetic control (p<0.05). The moderate dose of the

ethanol crude extract sustained reduction in the blood glucose

level up to 48 hours of administration. A progressive increase

in the blood glucose level was observed in the diabetic control

group (DC). The standard drug (insulin) demonstrated a highly

signiﬁcant hypoglyceamic effect at 1, 3 and 6 hours of adminis-

tration in the alloxan induced diabetic rats compared to the crude

extract treated groups (p<0.05). However, there was no statisti-

cally signiﬁcant difference in the hypoglyceamic effect of in-

sulin and that of the ethanol crude ﬂower extract of Bougeinvil-

lea spectabilis at 24 hours of administration as insulin started to

lose its effect gradually with time (table 5).

Table 1 Percentage yield and physical characteristics of the extract

Extraction parameters Results

Colour Dark Brown

Texture Smooth

Taste Acrid

Weight of dried plant (g) 900

Weight of plant extract (g) 76.8

Percentage yield (%) 8.53

Table 2 Qualitative phytochemical constituents of ethanol ﬂower

extract of B. spectabilis.

Phytochemical Constituents Observation

Alkaloids +

Anthraquinones +

Carbohydrates +

Cardiac glycosides +

Flavonoids +

Saponins +

Terpenoids +

Tannins -

+ = detected, - = not detected

Table 3 Oral acute toxicity of ethanol ﬂower extract of B.

spectabilis.

Experimental

phases

Dose

(mg/kg)

Observation of death within 24

hours

Phase I 10 0/2

100 0/2

1000 0/2

Phase II 1600 0/2

2900 0/2

5000 0/2

>5000 mg/kg b.w

Value were expressed in Mean±SEM, n=5, Key: A= Blood

glucose level after 24 hours of fasting, B= Blood glucose 72

hours after alloxan administration, CT = Control, DC= diabetic

control, LD= low dose, MD= moderate dose, HD = high dose,

BS=Bougainvillea spectabilis, One way ANOVA, *= p<0.05

(signiﬁcant compared with DC), β = p<0.05 (signiﬁcant com-

pared with insulin

Discussion

The ﬁndings from this study revealed the presence of some phy-

tochemicals that are associated with antioxidant and antidiabetic

effects. Studies have shown that polyphenolic compounds such

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

012

Table 4 Scavenging activity of the various fraction of ethanol ﬂower extract of B. Spectabilis

DPPH-radical scavenging Activity (%)

(µg/mL)Samples6.25 µg/mL 12.5 µg/mL 25 µg/mL 50 µg/mL 100 µg/mL

Hexane

frac-

tion

0.0 0.0 0.0 22.6 98.3 60.8

Chloroform

frac-

tion

0.0 0.0 66.5 90.1 90.5 43.8

Butanol

frac-

tion

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 41.8 159.3

Crude

ethanol

frac-

tion

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.2 329.8

Ascorbic

Acid

57.5 82.6 83.8 86.2 84.5 41.0

Table 5 Hypoglycaemic Effect of the ethanol ﬂower extract of B. spectabilis on glucose levels in alloxan induced diabetic rats

Groups Doses A (mg/dl) B (mg/dl)

Glucose level after treatment Mean±SEM

1 hr 3 hr 6 hr 24 hr 48 hr

NC 2 mL/kg 109.2±3.8 112.6±2.1 112.8±2.1 108.2±3.2 111.0±2.8 107.0±2.9 111.4±2.1

DC 2 mL/kg 108.6±5.6 485.4±22.6 520.0±20.5 538.4±14.6 531.0±13.9 557.2±12.8 580.0±6.1

Insulin 0.75 IU/kg) 111.6±3.0 395.8±74.6 165.4±71.5 116.0±40.0 179.6±32.3 262.8±22.2 384.6±35.2

BSLD 100m g/kg 121.2±8.2 382.6±51.2 469.8±78.8

586.6±11.5

420.8±32.9

293.4±44.6* 519.8±31.9

BSMD 200m g/kg 117.6±8.8 408.2±59.0 462.0±63.1 544.2±48.0

498.6±16.9

204.6±20.4* 295.2±48.2

BSHD 400 mg/kg 99.4±22.2 407.8±57.1 502.2±43.8 457.8±23.3 369.0±34.2 202.0±16.5* 425.6±46.0

ﬂavonoid, tannins are associated with antioxidant and antidia-

betic activities in mice and rats [5] [22]. The preliminary phy-

tochemical screening of ethanol ﬂower extract of Bougainvil-

lea spectabilis shown the presence of alkaloids, anthraquinones,

ﬂavonoids, saponin, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids and carbo-

hydrates while tannins was found to be absent. Similarly, the

study of Zahidul [23] reported the presence of alkaloid, re-

ducing sugars, ﬂavonoid, saponin, phenolic compounds, tan-

nins, in the methanol ﬂower extract of B. spectabilis but differ

with the absence of tannins in this study. Furthermore, the re-

port of Ghogar [24] indicated presence of alkaloids, ﬂavonoids,

quinones, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids from the

stem, ﬂower and leaf extracts of B. spectabilis. Inconsistency

in presence of phytochemical of extract may result from differ-

ence in geographical area of the plant, solvent used in extrac-

tion, period and time of collection [25]. These phytochemical

constituents may be responsible for the glucose lowering effect

of the extract [26] [23].

Many phytochemicals exhibit more than one biological ac-

tivity such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer effects with

many other health beneﬁts. The DPPH scavenging activity is

based on the ability of sample to donate hydrogen atom or trans-

fer electron to DPPH, thus neutralize the free radical character

and then gives rise to the reduced form of DPPH (non-radical)

with the loss of violet colour. In this study, the four fractions of

the extract (hexane, chloroform, butanol and crude), chloroform

exhibited the highest antioxidant activity with IC

43.8 as com-

pared with IC

of standard ascorbic acid (41.0 mg/mL). simi-

larly, the result of Omar [27] shown that the chloroform fraction

exhibited a high antioxidative and DPPH-radical inhibitory ac-

tivity. The hexane, butanol and the crude fractions had IC

60.8, 159.3 and 329.8 mg/mL respectively. This is contrary to

the study of Dhankar [28] which reported that the aqueous ex-

tract has potential scavenging activity followed by the chloro-

form. The DPPH radical scavenging activity increases in a dose

concentration-dependent manner from the concentrations 6.25 -

100 mg/mL.

The antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of the polyphenolic

constituents demonstrated could occur by blocking proinﬂam-

matory cytokines or endotoxin-mediated kinases and transcrip-

tion factors, inhibition of α-glucosidase, lipase or the formation

of nitric oxide protecting pancreatic β-cells against cytokine-

induced toxicity [29] [30] [31].

The oral acute toxicity (LD50) of the ethanol ﬂower extract

of Bougainvillea spectabilis was found to be greater than 5000

mg/kg body weight which means that is relatively non-toxic on

acute exposure. This study is similar with the work of [17] which

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

013

reported that stepwise doses of the ethanol stem bark extract was

administered from 300 mg/kg to 5000 mg/kg orally and no con-

siderable signs of toxicity were observed.

The study also revealed that the ethanol ﬂower extract of

Bougainvillea spectabilis showed a signiﬁcant hypoglycaemic

activity at the doses of 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg af-

ter 24 hours of administration (Table 5). Compared with insulin

(standard drug), there is a signiﬁcant decrease in blood glucose

level than the extract at 1, 3 and 6 hours of administration. The

antidiabetic effect of ethanol ﬂower extract is dose-dependent

considering the order of signiﬁcant decrease in blood glucose

level. This is similar to the study of kumar [32] on the methanol

stem bark extract of B. spectabilis which reported that the hy-

poglycemic effect is dose- dependent with 500 mg/kg exhibited

the highest activity. This study is in contradiction [17] which

reported that the 100 mg/kg body weight exhibited the highest

activity.

Conclusion

Diabetes mellitus as a chronic disease remain a global health

challenge. This study revealed that the ethanol ﬂower extract

of Bougainvillea spectabilis contained many phytochemical con-

stituents such as ﬂavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tannins and ter-

penoids known to exhibit antioxidant and hypoglycaemic ef-

fects. Chloroform fraction of the ﬂower extract has signiﬁcant

antioxidant activity with an IC

of 43.8 %. The hypoglycaemic

activity was dose dependent as it exhibited signiﬁcant activity

at the highest dose. Furthermore, the extract is fairly non-toxic

on acute exposure with the lethal dose greater than 5000 mg/kg

body weight. Bougainvillea spectabilis possess huge potentials

which can be explored further through identiﬁcation and isola-

tion of the bioactive components as well as their mechanism of

actions

Conﬂict of Interest

We have none to declare.

Acknowledgement

The authors are highly grateful to the staff of Pharmacology

and Toxicology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of

Maiduguri, Borno state.

Author details

Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty

of Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nige-

ria.

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of

Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Uni-

versity of Maiduguri, FY, Maiduguri, Nigeria Tata.

References

[1] Narhe S, Kshirsagar SS, Patil VS. Review on Medicinal

Herbs Used for Diabetes. International Journal of Pharma-

ceutical and Clinical Research. 2018;10(8):224–228.

[2] Karthikeyan J, Kavitha V, Abirami T, Bavani G. Medicinal

plants and diabetes mellitus. Journal of Pharmacognosy

and Phytochemistry: A review. 2017;6(4):1270–1279.

[3] Orasanu G, Plutzky J. The pathologic continuum of dia-

betic vascular disease. J Am Coll Crdiol. 2009;53(5):35–

42.

[4] Junejo JA, Gogoi G, Islam J, Rudrapa M, Mondal P, Haz-

arika H, et al. Exploration of antioxidant, antidiabetic

and hepatoprotective activity of Diplazium esculentum - A

wild edible plant from North Eastern India. Future Journal

of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2018;4:93–101.

[5] Barbosa A, Silveira GD, Menezes ID, Neto J, Bitencurt J,

Estavam CD, et al. Antidiabetic effect of the Chrysobal-

anus icaco L. aqueous extract in rats. J Med Food.

2013;16:538–543.

[6] Junejo JA, Singh KH, Islam J, Mandal P, Zaman K. Phyto-

chemical analysis and in vivo toxicity evaluation of green

vegetable Tetrastigma angustifolia (Roxb.) leaves. Asian J

Biol Life Sci. 2016;5:1–7.

[7] Yu-Jie Z, Ren-You G, Sha L, Yue Z, An-Na L, Dong-

Ping X, et al. Antioxidant Phytochemicals for the Pre-

vention and Treatment of Chronic Diseases. Molecules.

2015;20(12):21138–21156.

[8] International Diabetes Federation, 2015. Diabetes Atlas;. .

[9] Prevalence of diabetes in some African countries. World

Health Organization. 2016;.

[10] Sharif MS, Ohidul I, Azad AK, Mustafezur RM, Khor-

shed AA, Khairuzzaman M, et al. Phytochemical Proﬁl-

ing and Evaluation of Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Activ-

ity of Methanol Extract of Spinach (Spinacia Oleracea L.)

leaves. Int J Pharm Sci & Scient Res. 2018;3(8):24–27.

[11] Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates for

the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes

Research and Clinical Practice. 2010;.

[12] Zimmet P, Alberti KGMM, Shaw J. Global and So-

cietal Implications of the Diabetes Epidemic. Nature.

2001;414(13):782–787.

[13] Ali N, Shah SWA, Khan J, Rehman S, Imran M, Hus-

sian I, et al. Pharmacotherapy-Based Problems in the

Management of Diabetes Mellitus. J Young Pharm.

2010;2(3):311–314.

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

014

[14] Calixto JB. Twenty-ﬁve years of research on medici-

nal plants in Latin America: a personal view. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology. 2005;100(1-2):131–134.

[15] Traditional Medicine Strategy World Health Organization.

World Health Organization. 2002;.

[16] Malviya N, Jain S, Malviya S. antidiabetic potential

of medicinal plants. Journal pharmaceutical society.

2010;67(2):113–118.

[17] Jawla S, Kumar Y, Khan MSY. Hypoglycemia activity

of Bougainvillea spectabilis stem bark in normal and al-

loxan induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed.

2012;2:919–942.

[18] Evans WC, Trease, Evans. Edinburgh: W.B Saunders;

2002.

[19] Sofowora EA. Medicinal and Traditional Meidicine in

Africa. In: Spectrum book Ltd; 2008. p. 89–133.

[20] Deora PS, Mishra CK, Mavani P, Asha R, Shirivastava B,

Rajesh KN. Effective alternative methods of LD50 help to

save number of experimental animals. J chem Pharm Res.

2010;2(6):450–453.

[21] Krishna RK, Kumari SK, Vinodha M, Sebastin A, Gomathi

R; 2012.

[22] Cheng DM, Pogrebnyak N, Kuhn P, Krueger CG, Johnson

WD, Raskin I; 2014.

[23] Zahidul IMD, Tanvir MDH, Foysal H, Mir SA, Moham-

mad AM. In-vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of

Bougainvillea glabra ﬂower. Research Journal of Medici-

nal Plant. 2016;10(3):228–236.

[24] Ghogar A, Jiraungkoorskul K, Jiraungkoorskul W. Pa-

per ﬂower, Bougainvillea spectabilis: update properties of

traditional medicinal plant. Journal of Natural Remedy.

2016;16:82–87.

[25] Yadav JP, Arya V, Yadav S, Panghal M, Kumar SD. Cassia

occidentalis: A review on its ethnobotany, phytochemical

and pharmacological process. Fitoterapia. 2009;8(1):223–

253.

[26] Jawla S, Kumar Y, Khan MSY. Isolation of an-

tidiabetic principle of Bougainvillea spectabilis

Willd(Nyctaginaceae) stem bark. Trop J Pharm Res.

2013;2(1):759–761.

[27] Omar M, Noman RA, Mothana AJ, Al-Rehaily AS, Qah-

tani FAA, Nasr JM, et al. Phytochemical analysis and

anti-diabetic, anti-inﬂammatory and antioxidant activities

of Loranthus acaciae Zucc. Grown in Saudi Arabia. Saudi

Pharm J. 2019;27(5):724–730.

[28] Dhankhar S, Sharma M, Ruhil S, Balhara M, Kumar M,

Chhilla AK. Evaluation of antimicrobial and antioxidant

activities of Bougainvillea spectabilis. Int J Pharm Pharm

Sci. 2002;5:178–82.

[29] Jeong GS, Lee DS, Song MY, Park BH, Kang DG, Lee

HS, et al. Butein from Rhus verniciﬂua protects pancre-

atic beta cells against cytokine-induced toxicity mediated

by inhibition of nitric oxide formation. Biol Pharm Bull.

2011;34:97–102.

[30] Meng B, Li J, Cao H. Antioxidant and antiinﬂammatory

activities of curcumin on diabetes mellitus and its compli-

cations. Curr Pharm Des. 2013;19:2101–2113.

[31] Girones-Vilaplana A, Mena P, Moreno DA, Garcia-

Viguera C. Evaluation of sensorial, phytochemical and

biological properties of new isotonic beverages enriched

with lemon and berries during shelf life. J Sci Food Agric.

2014;94:1090–1100.

[32] Kumar GSP, Kasireddy GR, Kumar CDAS, Bhavani E;

2017.

Fave et al.: International Journal of Phytomedicine, 2021;13(1):009-015

015